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Islamic Studies: History and Primary Sources

philosophy

Arab philosophers effectively integrated faith and scientific fact, letting one exit within the framework of the other. The Arab philosophers after Byzantium re-discovered the classic philosophy of Aristotle, Plotinus, and Plato in attempting to find answers to the fundamental questions concerning God‘s creation of the universe, the nature and destiny of the human soul, and the true existence of the seen as the unseen.
Among the well-known philosophers of the medieval world were al-Kindi, who contributed to the work of Plato and Aristotle; al-Farabi, who made a model of Man‘s community; Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who developed theories on form and matter that were incorporated into medieval Christian Scholasticism; Ibn Khaldun, who expounded the cycles of a state in his Muqqadimah (Introduction).

Islamic philosophy, known as falsafa, is a rich and diverse tradition that integrates Greek philosophical ideas with Islamic thought, while also developing original concepts. Here are some of the most significant Islamic philosophy books that have shaped the intellectual landscape of the Islamic world:

1. "Kitab al-Shifa" (The Book of Healing)

  • Author: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037)
  • Overview: One of the most influential works in Islamic philosophy, The Book of Healing is a comprehensive encyclopedic work that covers logic, natural sciences, mathematics, and metaphysics. Ibn Sina’s integration of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic philosophy with Islamic theology had a profound impact on both Islamic and Western thought.

2. "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (The Incoherence of the Philosophers)

  • Author: Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
  • Overview: This seminal work is a critical attack on the metaphysical ideas of Islamic philosophers, particularly those of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi. Al-Ghazali challenges the compatibility of Greek philosophy with Islamic teachings, particularly in areas such as causality and the eternity of the world. This book is a key text in the debate between reason and revelation in Islamic thought.

3. "Tahafut al-Tahafut" (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)

  • Author: Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198)
  • Overview: Written as a rebuttal to Al-Ghazali’s Tahafut al-Falasifa, Ibn Rushd’s work defends the use of reason and philosophy in understanding religious truths. Ibn Rushd argues for the harmony between philosophy and religion, and his work became highly influential in both the Islamic world and medieval Europe.

4. "Al-Muqaddima" (The Introduction)

  • Author: Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)
  • Overview: Although primarily a work of sociology and history, Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddima contains significant philosophical discussions on the nature of society, economics, and human civilization. His theories on the rise and fall of civilizations are deeply philosophical and have influenced later thinkers in both the East and the West.

5. "Al-Madina al-Fadila" (The Virtuous City)

  • Author: Al-Farabi (872–950)
  • Overview: In this work, Al-Farabi, known as "the Second Teacher" after Aristotle, outlines his vision of the ideal society, guided by a philosopher-king. The book draws heavily on Plato’s Republic but adapts its ideas to fit within an Islamic framework, exploring the relationship between ethics, politics, and religion.

6. "Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan" (The Epistle of Hayy ibn Yaqzan)

  • Author: Ibn Tufayl (1105–1185)
  • Overview: This philosophical novel explores themes of self-discovery, the nature of knowledge, and the relationship between reason and revelation. It tells the story of a boy raised by animals on a deserted island who discovers the truths of existence through reason alone. The work had a significant influence on later Islamic and Western thought, including European Enlightenment thinkers.

7. "Al-Isharat wa'l-Tanbihat" (The Book of Remarks and Admonitions)

  • Author: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037)
  • Overview: This later work of Ibn Sina is a concise yet profound exploration of logic, metaphysics, and mysticism. It presents complex philosophical ideas in a more accessible manner and is known for its integration of philosophy with Islamic spirituality.

8. "Al-Hikma al-Mashriqiyya" (The Oriental Philosophy)

  • Author: Suhrawardi (1154–1191)
  • Overview: Suhrawardi, the founder of the Illuminationist school of philosophy, presented a new form of metaphysics that combined Persian, Platonic, and Islamic ideas. The Oriental Philosophy is a mystical and philosophical work that emphasizes the importance of inner illumination and spiritual knowledge.

9. "Kitab al-Burhan" (The Book of Demonstration)

  • Author: Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198)
  • Overview: This work is part of Ibn Rushd’s trilogy on logic and epistemology. In The Book of Demonstration, he discusses the principles of logic and reasoning, emphasizing the importance of rational demonstration in philosophical inquiry. His defense of Aristotelian logic was crucial in the preservation and transmission of Greek philosophy to the West.

10. "Al-Mantiq" (Logic)

  • Author: Al-Farabi (872–950)
  • Overview: Al-Farabi's writings on logic were highly influential in the development of Islamic philosophy. He expanded on Aristotle's works, systematizing logic and making it a central discipline in Islamic intellectual tradition. His contributions to logic were foundational for later philosophers.

11. "Hikmat al-Ishraq" (The Wisdom of Illumination)

  • Author: Suhrawardi (1154–1191)
  • Overview: This book outlines Suhrawardi’s philosophy of Illuminationism, which combines metaphysics with mysticism. Suhrawardi presents a vision of reality where light and darkness symbolize the degrees of existence and knowledge. This work is central to the development of later Islamic mysticism and philosophy.

12. "Al-Risala al-Shamsiyya" (The Treatise on Logic)

  • Author: Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311)
  • Overview: This treatise is a significant work in the tradition of Islamic logic, further developing the ideas of earlier philosophers like Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. It was widely studied in Islamic madrasas and played a key role in the education of scholars in

    Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa" (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity)

  • Author: Anonymous, attributed to the Brethren of Purity (10th century)
  • Overview: This collection of epistles includes many philosophical and spiritual anecdotes aimed at explaining the mysteries of the universe, ethics, and metaphysics. The work is attributed to a secretive group of philosophers and has had a significant impact on Islamic thought.

Here’s a list of major Islamic thinkers and some of their notable works:

**1. Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 CE):

  • "On First Philosophy": A foundational work in Islamic philosophy that deals with metaphysical issues.
  • "The Philosophy of Aristotle": A commentary on Aristotle’s works, integrating them into Islamic thought.

**2. Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE):

  • "Al-Madina al-Fadila" ("The Virtuous City"): A treatise on political philosophy and ideal state.
  • "Ihsa' al-'Ulum" ("The Enumeration of the Sciences"): An early attempt to categorize and systematize the sciences.

**3. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980–1037 CE):

  • "The Book of Healing": A comprehensive philosophical and scientific encyclopedia.
  • "The Canon of Medicine": A key medical text that influenced both Islamic and European medicine.

**4. Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (c. 1126–1198 CE):

  • "The Incoherence of the Incoherence": A defense of Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali’s critiques.
  • "The Decisive Treatise": Explores the relationship between philosophy and religion.

**5. Al-Ghazali (c. 1058–1111 CE):

  • "The Incoherence of the Philosophers": A critique of Islamic philosophy, particularly the works of Avicenna.
  • "The Revival of the Religious Sciences": A comprehensive work on ethics, spirituality, and religious practice.

**6. Ibn Arabi (c. 1165–1240 CE):

  • "Fusus al-Hikam" ("The Bezels of Wisdom"): A major work on Sufi metaphysics and philosophy.
  • "Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya" ("The Meccan Revelations"): A comprehensive mystical and philosophical work.

**7. Ibn Khaldun (c. 1332–1406 CE):

  • "Muqaddimah" ("Introduction to History"): A pioneering work in sociology, historiography, and economics.

**8. Al-Tawhidi (c. 930–1023 CE):

  • "Lata'if al-Ma'arif": A collection of essays on various topics including philosophy and ethics.
  • "Al-Imtihan": A treatise on examinations and intellectual evaluations.

**9. Ibn Miskawayh (c. 932–1030 CE):

  • "Taj al-Muluk" ("The Crown of Kings"): A historical and philosophical treatise.
  • "Kitab al-Fawz al-Asghar" ("The Book of the Lesser Triumph"): A work on ethics and moral philosophy.

**10. Ikhwan al-Safa (The Brethren of Purity):

  • "Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa" ("Epistles of the Brethren of Purity"): A collection of 52 epistles covering various philosophical, scientific, and theological subjects.

These thinkers made significant contributions to various fields such as philosophy, theology, medicine, and social theory, shaping both Islamic and global intellectual traditions.

Abu Hayyan al Tawhidi

Al-Jahiz (776–868)

  • Kitab al-Hayawan (The Book of Animals): A seven-volume encyclopedia on zoology, filled with anecdotes, philosophical musings, and observations about animals. It also includes discussions on natural history and human society.
  • Al-Bayan wa al-Tabyin (The Book of Eloquence and Demonstration): A seminal work on Arabic rhetoric and oratory. Al-Jahiz explores the relationship between language, communication, and thought.
  • Kitab al-Bukhala' (The Book of Misers): A witty collection of anecdotes focusing on misers, illustrating human behavior and social values in an amusing way.